From the Archives: Using Animal Manure as Fertilizer

In a correspondence between Prof. W. L. Drew and Link & Bagley, dealers of Stable and Dairy fertilizers, Drew brings up the idea that their fertilizer could aid in the growth of his citrus groves. He credits the Citrus Industry magazine for the idea that animal manure would work very well in the growth of citrus.

There are several benefits to using animal manure as fertilizer, besides the low cost. Animal manure is rich in nutrients that plants depend on such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nitrogen is essential for chlorophyll production aiding in the overall health and growth of plants; phosphorus is used for ATP, or energy production, which is very important for flowering and blooming in plants; potassium is necessary for the use of several enzymes within plants and is essential for photosynthesis and water uptake in plants.

In some cases, animal manure can also help to regulate the pH levels of the soil. When soil is too acidic, this can lead to a decrease in the important nutrients discussed earlier. It can also stunt plant growth and cause browning of the leaves; in some cases, it can even lead to plant death.

Using animal manure also decreases the chances of runoff taking place. When using chemical fertilizers, excess nutrients can get washed into bodies of water. This can be very detrimental to the surrounding environment and lead to excessive algae growth. This is known as algae blooms, and it is caused by excessive nitrogen and phosphorus, the main nutrients in chemical fertilizers.

The addition of manure to soils helps improve the structure of soil making it better at holding water for longer periods of time. This is beneficial because during dry periods plants continue to have access to water stores being held in the soil. This reinforced soil structure is also less likely to erode when compared to regular soil structures.

Overall, the use of animal manure makes sense for various reasons.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Sources:

Furiness, Cari, Ellis Cowling, Lee Allen, Robert Abt, Doug Fresrick, Kelly Zering, and Robert Campbell. “Using Animal Manures in Forest Fertilization.” North Carolina State Extension, January 1, 2011. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/using-animal-manures-in-forest-fertilization.

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts II: A Portion of Florida Citrus History. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1998.

From the Archives: Citrus Catalogs

The Florida Citrus Industry has an illustrious history of unique marketing strategies. A collaboration with Disney resulted in the iconic Orange Bird character, an annual pageant is held to find Miss Florida Citrus, a spokesperson who travels extensively on behalf of the industry, and the Florida Department of Citrus has launched many advertising campaigns to emphasize the health benefits of consuming citrus products. One such unique marketing tool that growers have utilized is citrus catalogs. Catalogs provide a visual to consumers about different types of citruses they can order or allows them to order arrangements in gift baskets and boxes. Growers of other fruit, such as Washington apples or pears, do not typically use catalogs to sell their products, making them a unique selling tool for citrus growers.

The history of catalog usage in the United States dates all the way back to the founding fathers. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson frequently used them to order things from Europe, however, the first successful American catalog company was not launched until 1872 by a Chicago dry goods merchant named Andrew Montgomery Ward. This means that the Florida Citrus industry is partaking in a marketing tradition that dates back hundreds of years.

Citrus catalogs are usually aesthetically pleasing, presenting different options for products that the consumer can order straight from the catalog. Options can include themed gift baskets or boxes filled with beautiful fruit. This is a useful strategy, as the use of aesthetics is typically the most effective way to market produce. Usually, products are presented in the pages of the catalog with glowing pictures and a bit of juicy information to entice the viewer to purchase the fruits. Growers typically produce their own catalogs to showcase the products they have grown on their farms and connect with the individual consumer.

In the 2020s, the age of online shopping, some citrus catalogs have been digitized into online stores. This depends on the grower, but many Florida citrus companies offer online stores to make it easy for the consumer to see their products, select what they want, and pay electronically, rather than having to call to place their order or even send it by mail. Online stores have made ordering citrus easier and efficient, suggesting that citrus marketing stays current and keeps up with the times. Growers also utilize newsletters and social media platforms to market directly to the individual consumer. Some of the more well-known Florida growers currently using online catalogs are Indian River Fruit, Al’s Family Farms, and Dundee Groves.

 

Written by Lauren Gunther, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Source:

“Catalogs and the Mail Order Industry.” National Postal Museum. Accessed February 29, 2024. https://postalmuseum.si.edu/exhibition/america%E2%80%99s-mailing-industry-industry-segments/catalogs-and-the-mail-order-industry.

From the Archives: Citrus Experiment Station

In 1917, the Citrus Experiment Station was established at Lake Alfred. They started with 84 acres of land and $13,000 that had been raised by local growers. In 1923, Florida Legislators provided the station with $15,000 for the 1923-1924 fiscal year; this would be approximately $230,000 today. In 1926, the first permanent buildings were constructed; up until this point, they had been operating out of temporary buildings. By 1965, the station had multiple buildings and was spread out across 285 acres of land.

In the beginning, the goal of the station was to perfect already existing methods used for growing, packing, and processing citrus. These small changes helped to increase the efficiency of the field and helped grow the Florida Citrus Industry. In the 1940s, the staff at the experiment station were working on perfecting the processing of citrus concentrate. They received the patent for this process in 1948.

The station underwent a name change in 1970 and began going by the Agricultural Research and Education Center (A.R.E.C). It is currently known as the Citrus Research and Education Center (C.R.E.C.). They are currently working on several topics at the moment including protoplast and cell culture, genetic engineering, and applied plant breeding. The staff at the citrus institute is made up of 250 individuals; 50 of them are also faculty members at the University of Florida.

It is important to keep doing research in the citrus field because it helps growers to increase their yields. Citrus greening is a bacteria that makes both the fruit and tree look as though they lack nutrition and makes the fruit inedible. To combat this, C.R.E.C is working on genetically modifying certain citrus trees, so that they are resistant to this bacteria. The hope is that they will be able to distribute these trees to growers.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Sources:

Borger, Ruth. “University of Florida awarded key federal grants to continue fight against citrus greening.” UF IFAS Blogs, University of Florida, October 22, 2020. https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2020/10/22/university-of-florida-awarded-key-federal-grants-to-continue-fight-against-citrus-greening.

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts II: A Portion of Florida Citrus History. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1998.

From the Archives: Citrus Greats - Walter T. Swingle

Similar to any scientific field, early researchers paved the way for the current researchers. This post will acknowledge just one of the many monumental discoveries made in the citrus industry. Starting with Walter T. Swingle, he was a botanist sent to Florida from Washington, D.C. He was originally sent to Florida with the goal of researching the citrus disease plaguing groves at the time. During his time in Florida, he became a part of some of the early research concerning hybrids and hybridization. Swingle is specifically credited with creating the Tangelo, a cross between a tangerine and a pomelo.

Hybridization is a beneficial tool because it allows researchers to combine the most desirable characteristics of two different species to create an entirely new species. This is different from genetically modified organisms, or GMOs, because the genes in GMOs have been altered or enhanced while hybridization takes advantage of the natural traits found in each plant species. This can be done by collecting a sample of the DNA found in each species, unwrapping it, and pairing them with one another to create a DNA helix that has one strand from species A and one strand from species B.

Herbert J. Webber worked alongside Swingle to perfect their hybridization techniques. The pair published several papers, books, bulletins, and pamphlets together discussing the research they had conducted and providing growers with helpful information to aid in the efficiency of growing citrus groves. Webber and Leon D. Batchelor then published The Citrus Industry. This book detailed the history of the citrus industry, botany, and methods used to breed citrus. Citrus growers used these books to aid in their growing techniques and to learn more about the citrus industry. Although not mentioned, there are numerous other researchers and scientists who played a fundamental role in the advancements of the Florida Citrus Industry.

Walter T. Swingle was inducted into the Florida Citrus Hall of Fame in 1962 as part of the inaugural class: https://floridacitrushalloffame.com/inductees/walter-tennyson-swingle/.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Sources:

Johnson, Alexander. “How Does Plant Hybridization Work?” ScienceOxygen, September 14, 2022. https://scienceoxygen.com/how-does-plant-hybridization-work/.

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts II: A Portion of Florida Citrus History. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1998.

From the Archives: Citrus Canker

Citrus canker is caused by a bacteria that eats the flesh and leaves of fruit. This bacteria is not harmful to humans and the fruit is still edible. However, the fruit is now difficult to sell due to the ugly sores that are created by the canker bacteria. This bacteria can also cause fruit to drop from the tree prematurely stopping it from ripening.

In the early 1900s, there was a widespread outbreak of canker throughout Florida. Frank Starling was hired by the Florida Citrus Growers and the Citrus League to see if he could aid in the battle against canker. Between 1913 and 1933, the state of Florida spent approximately $1.3 million in their attempts to eradicate canker. During this battle against canker, infected trees were burnt down to ensure that they could not spread the bacteria to other trees in the area. It is speculated that the canker bacteria traveled to the States via citrus seedlings from Japan.

There was a reemergence of citrus canker in the 1980s, and it was declared eradicated in 1994. However, there was a report of canker in Miami-Dade County the following year, in September 1995. Before the eradication efforts were successful, a hurricane spread the bacteria to several other counties. By 2005, $2.1 million worth of commercial grade citrus had been destroyed. In 2006, the eradication efforts were forced to stop because it had become impossible to eradicate canker due to how widespread it had become.

Currently, canker is still active in citrus groves with the majority of infections taking place between April and July. Growers have learned how to deal with the bacteria; applying copper containing products periodically to produce has been known to deter canker in citrus. Although, it should be noted that copper is not a guaranteed deterrent to the bacteria. As there are no known cures to the bacteria, these methods will have to be sufficient for the time being.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Sources:

Dewdney, M. M., M. Zekri, P. D. Roberts, and J. D. Burrow. “Homeowner Fact Sheet: Citrus Canker.” UF IFAS Extension, University of Florida, June 4, 2018. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/PP116. 

 

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1992.

From the Archives: Soil Science Foundation

In 1939, the Soil Science Foundation was started by a group of farmers in Dade City who were looking to come up with solutions that they were facing with their various crops; the Soil Science Foundation is credited with several scientific accomplishments. Their first headquarters was a small building on the campus of Florida Southern College, and they did not relocate off campus for 10 years.

When the Foundation started, they were running experiments on the fertilization of sandy soils at the Short Grove in Lake County. Sandy soils do not hold nutrients well, meaning fertilization is necessary to ensure that crops are able to obtain the necessary nutrients for growth. However, over fertilization can be harmful for plants as it will change the pH of the soil, suffocate the soil, and cause root damage. The goal of the experiments being run by the foundation was to determine the necessary amount of fertilizer.

During this time, the Foundation also researched the sustainability of Florida flatwoods for citrus planting. Florida flatwoods make up a large portion of Florida’s landscape. Flatwoods are ideal for citrus cultivation because of their sandy moist soils. Citrus does well in sandy soils because it provides good drainage, which prevents root damage from taking place. Planting in flatwoods also helps with irrigation because of the water deposits that are typically found within these flatwoods. However, there may be some disadvantages to planting citrus on these lands. During wet seasons, the soil can become overly saturated due to the water deposits already existing in the soil, they are at risk to develop frost that can cause freeze in citrus, and cultivating citrus in these regions could negatively impact the environment and decrease the biodiversity of the region. The goal of the experiments targeting citrus cultivation on the flatwoods was to determine if using the flatwoods would result in significantly better yields.


To learn more about the Soil Science Foundation, please check out the Soil Science Foundation Records at the McKay Archives: https://www.flsouthern.edu/getattachment/96400c75-e443-47c6-9fc7-690feef0137c/Soil-Science-Foundation-Records-Finding-Aid.pdf.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Source:
 

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1992.

From the Archives: Cattle Feed

In the 1900s, growers began to feed cattle the leftover pulp, peels, and seeds that were left behind after the desirable parts of citrus fruit had already been canned for production. Because pulp has a high liquid concentration, it went bad faster than the cattle could eat it. This left much of the feed to rot out in the pastures. This led researchers to run feed tests to determine if the citrus by-products were providing any nutrition for their cattle. This research found that only the pulp had any actual nutritional value that would be beneficial to the cattle while both the peel and seeds did not have any value to them.

Upon this discovery, there was a race to patent citrus pulp as feed. Everyone wanted a chance at reaping the rewards for this invention. The Pratt Food Company was one of the first plants that popped up in Tampa with the sole purpose of processing citrus waste. After this, several other companies opened branches that were responsible for dealing with citrus waste.

In order for the pulp to be fed to the cattle, it had to be dried. Reducing the liquid concentration in the pulp allowed the growers to store the pulp for later use without it going bad due to the liquids being held inside the pulp. There are many advantages to using dried citrus pulp for feed. Citrus pulp is a very bulky carbohydrate meaning cattle do not need to eat a lot of it and pulp is high in calcium. However, pulp is low in phosphorus, one of the major nutrients that cattle need, meaning it must be supplemented with other forms of feed to ensure that cattle stay healthy. Citrus pulp is still being used for feed today; however, it is not used for milking cows as it can cause a decrease in milk production.

Written by Tanzy Zviitwah, Florida Citrus Hall of Fame Fellow
In partnership with Florida Southern College’s McKay Archives Center
Spring 2024

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Source:
 

Mack, Thomas B. Citrifacts. Bartow, Florida: Associated Publications Corporation, 1992.